Sofia took a deep breath, trying to settle the butterflies in her stomach. She was supposed to give a speech in a few minutes to her college’s UnidosUS chapter in a few minutes on September 15^th, the first day of the National Hispanic Heritage Month. She has stayed up all night preparing her speech, but now wondered if it was as good as she thought it was when she finally fell asleep last night. She looked around backstage, her eyes darting around, flitting from place to place—a perfect analogy to her racing mind.

‘You’re going to do great,” Jesús says, giving her a thumbs up.

Sofia smiles weakly, clutching her notes even harder. It feels like the auditorium is 100 degrees with an air so thick she can hardly breathe. She starts to pace as she hears Miguel begin his introduction. “Only a few minutes and then it’s showtime,” she thinks and begins rehearsing her speech in her mind.

“It is my great pleasure to introduce our club president, Sofia Lopez Morales. Es un gran placer presentar a la presidenta de nuestro club, Lopez Morales.”

Miguel announces as the crowd stands up to applaud.

Sofia takes a step forward, her knees nearly buckling with anxiety. Jesús catches her, giving her a one-armed hug around her shoulder and a smile. “You can do this! Remember, they are on your side!”

With one final deep breath, Sofia nods and then walks onto the auditorium stage, smiling. Jesús, also smiling, hands her the microphone and then walks off stage leaving Sofia alone to look out amongst the crowd. Nearly fifty people, students, professors, and the Dean of the College are in attendance. She fumbles her notes, “Good morning for being here” she gasps as one falls down and she bends to pick it up. She hears the audience chuckle as it dawns on her what she has just said. “Sorry! I mean thank you for being here and good morning! Bienvenidos!”

Many in the crowd respond in kind, smiling and looking interested to hear what she is going to say. As she straightens, she looks at the crowd again and this time she doesn’t see fifty people—she sees Maria who is in her first class, Algebra at 8 AM; Antonio who has a great sense of humor and is quick with a joke; Carolina, her closest friend, sitting with her girlfriend Daniela; and other friends and trusted mentors. Taking strength from their hopeful looks, she begins, “Welcome. Today, I want to tell you a story about the history of our people–a history triumph. Bienvenidos. Hoy quiero contarles una historia de nuestro pueblo — una historia de triunfos.”

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Why do people speak in public? For many, it is a setting that many try to avoid because of anxiety, but there will be times throughout your life you will have a reason to speak to a group of people. Each of these reasons are understood as the rhetorical purpose of a public presentation and constitute the reason(s) why a person addresses others. Whether in a boardroom, classroom, religious institution, or a public rally, speaking to a group of individuals can be a daunting task. Although you might feel nervous, excited, or determined as you give your presentation, it is important to take an accounting of your purpose when giving your speech and understanding the rhetorical situation.

The rhetorical purpose and situation can be broadly divided into different categories. Typically, scholars believe that there are three primary types of rhetorical purposes:

• To perform: this type of presentation seeks to commemorate an event or enact a ritual such as consecrating a wedding, giving an award, or offering a eulogy.
• To inform: this type of presentation is delivered to increase your audience’s awareness or understanding of a technology, issue, or idea.
• To persuade: this type of presentation is given with the intention to change an audience’s beliefs or behaviors.

Of course, a presentation might contain multiple purposes. For example, a funeral eulogy might try to perform a commemoration for the deceased while also persuading the audience to treat others better in life. However, by thinking of these three purposes as distinct reasons as to why we engage in public speaking, it helps us have a clearer understanding of our goals when communicating with others. In addition to the purposes, it’s important to recognize the rhetorical situation in which a presentation is given.

A rhetorical situation comprises of four components:

• Purpose: the purpose of performing, informing, or persuading with a presentation helps you think about what is appropriate or not to communicate.
• Topic: the content of the presentation, language, tone, and subject matter, should all be chosen carefully based on the context of the public speaking event.
• Speaker: who is giving the presentation matters in terms of how they are perceived by the audience as credible, funny, or inspirational.
• Audience: who the speaker believes their intended audience is and, just as important, who the audience actually is vital to understand. For example, a joke or story that may work with one audience may not when it is told outside of that context.

Taken together, the rhetorical purpose and situation are essential ingredients for a good public address. Overlooking either can seriously undermine the effectiveness of your speech and make your communication ineffective–sometimes to the point where your speech can have the opposite of your intended effect!

In this chapter, we will overview the three rhetorical purposes and offer ways for you to think about your presentations. By doing so, we hope you can begin to appreciate that public speaking is more than just standing in front of a lot of people and talking; rather, it is a complicated activity that requires thorough preparation in order to execute properly and successfully. Whether addressing people on your campus, at your career, or in your community, developing a sense of rhetorical awareness of your purpose and situation will help you reach your goals.

The sky is crying, and the flags are at half-mast. It is a sad, sad day. But it is also your day, Noah, my little man. I will miss your forceful and purposeful little steps stomping through our house. I will miss your perpetual smile, the twinkle in your dark blue eyes, framed by eyelashes that would be the envy of any lady in this room.

Most of all, I will miss your visions of your future. You wanted to be a doctor, a soldier, a taco factory manager. It was your favorite food, and no doubt you wanted to ensure that the world kept producing tacos.

You were a little boy whose life force had all the gravitational pull of a celestial body. You were light and love, mischief and pranks. You adored your family with every fiber of your 6-year-old being. We are, all of us, elevated in our humanity by having known you. A little maverick, who didn’t always want to do his schoolwork or clean up his toys, when practicing his ninja moves or Super Mario on the Wii seemed far more important.

Noah, you will not pass through this way again. I can only believe that you were planted on Earth to bloom in heaven. Take flight, my boy. Soar. You now have the wings you always wanted. Go to that peaceful valley that we will all one day come to know. I will join you someday. Not today. I still have lots of mommy love to give to Danielle, Michael, Sophia, and Arielle. Until then, your melody will linger in our hearts forever. Momma loves you, little man.

-Eulogy written by Veronique de la Rosa to her son killed in the Sandy Hook Elementary School Massacre.

Performative speaking is one of the most creative, varied, and important forms of public address. Whether to celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or entertain, performative speaking has the power to heal, motivate, and call others to action. Performative or performance in this sense doesn’t mean inauthentic or acting; rather, it speaks to the idea that communication that addresses the rituals, ceremonies, and special occasions that mark our lives “performs” some social function.

Take Veronique’s eulogy for her son for example: Why offer such a heartfelt and deeply personal reflection in a public space? What does her speech “do” when given in the presence of friends, family, and the public–all of whom are connected to her grief through the tragedy of one of the deadliest school shootings in U.S. history? We might guess that engaging in the public ritual of commemoration might offer some closure or solace or that in sharing her eulogy we, as the audience, might reflect on our own relationships with our children and their safety. There is no doubt that her speech, while short, is incredibly powerful and calls us to empathize with her pain.

Performative speaking, as ritualistic communication, is given in a specific context and given meaning by its adherence (or not) to the social conventions that mark the context. Remember from Chapter 2 that rituals consist of a social performance of patterned behavior to effect or participate in serious life. The idea of serious life is to say that rituals occur where social standing can be won or lost through one’s adherence to, or rejection of, ritualized behavior. For example, if one acts happy or pleased that person dies, and expresses that through a eulogy, many will find their presentation tacky, rude, or sacrilegious. Typically, performative presentations are characterized by one of these four rhetorical purposes:

• To Celebrate: This type of speech is given to honor, or highlight the accomplishments of, a person, organization, or institution at the time they have occurred. This rhetorical purpose is typical at weddings, award ceremonies, or birthdays. Often, the rituals that characterize these speeches include praising the subject of honor, telling a light or inoffensive joke about the subject of honor, or complimenting the location (e.g., “Today, we celebrate Ken and John, in this beautiful church, on their decision to spend their lives together in wedlock.”).
• To Commemorate: This type of speech is given to pay tribute to, remember, or reflect on a person, organization, or institution. In other words, whereas a speech to celebrate usually occurs and is addressed to an accomplishment in the moment (e.g., giving a speech at the reception of a wedding), a commemorative speech usually addresses the subject of honor’s past in a substantial way. This rhetorical purpose is common at funerals or retirements. The rituals that are often associated with this type of speech include sensitivity to tone (i.e., usually somber for eulogies), telling context-appropriate inspirational or entertaining anecdotes about the subject of honor, or discussing the influence/impact the subject of honor had or will have on the future.
• To Inspire: This type of speech is given to motivate others, stir up their courage, or galvanize an audience. This rhetorical purpose is common at commencement ceremonies, keynote addresses, inaugural speeches, or religious sermons. The rituals that are commonly connected to this type of speech include sensitivity to volume, dynamism, and tone (i.e., usually all are high to provoke a response of the audience), exalted language or metaphors, and the presence of a target that the audience’s energy will be focused on overcoming (e.g., beating the other sports team).
• To Entertain: This type of speech is given to amuse, delight, and engage the audience with humor or spectacle. This rhetorical purpose is mostly seen at banquets, award dinners, or roasts. The rituals associated with this type of speech include being cheerful or lighthearted, but still having a serious message or bit of wisdom to be imparted on the audience.

Taken together, these four rhetorical purposes constitute a variety of speech forms that are found in different rhetorical situations. The performative speech is unique in that it explicitly intertwines the content of the speech with tone, emotion, and dynamism meant to celebrate, inspire, or entertain. This type of public address accompanies almost every major event in society, such as rites of passage, tributes, and gatherings. In fact, almost every large gathering of humans is accompanied by some sort of ritualistic communication, such as prayer, benediction, or blessing. Being able to meet the demands of a performative speech means you will be able to participate in, and excel at, an important part of social life.

Given the importance of performative speaking, it is vital to understand the various situations you might find yourself in that demand this form of communication. Below, we describe four forms of performative speaking and catalog the successful characteristics for each:

• Introduction Presentation: This type of presentation introduces or presents the next speaker or event to the audience. Typically, an introduction speech sets the tone for the event (e.g., maybe loud and dynamic at a music festival or somber and tame at a funeral). It is important to be knowledgeable of the next speaker or event so you can give a unique introduction rather than a formulaic one. Make sure you know the proper pronunciation of the speaker’s name and the correct title of their speech or the event. This type of speech is typically short because you want the audience to focus their attention on their main speaker instead of you. Often, the presentation is less than one minute in length and ends with a call to action, such as standing and clapping.
• Award Presentation/Acceptance Presentation: This type of presentation is given when you give or receive an award. If presenting the award, make sure to recite the name of the award, its criteria, and the accomplishments of the recipient, which demonstrates why they deserve the award. You may also compliment and recognize other nominees for the award and remark on how close the competition was for the award. If receiving an award, make sure to be appropriate to the event in celebration, humble, and prepared. You should have prepared remarks, thanking the audience, key people who helped you, and anyone else that is important to you (e.g., family or friends). Do not, however, read a laundry list of names nor should you pick/call on members of the audience to thank (unless you have forewarned them). It is acceptable to show emotion and pride, but do not go over the time limit. Typically, an acceptance speech is less than five minutes.
• Eulogy/Tribute: Eulogies and tributes are typically given at funerals, retirements, and special occasions that mark a significant accomplishment on the part of a person or organization. Although you may wish to speak about your relationship with the deceased or organization, it is important to remember that this speech is about them, not you. As such, you want to focus most of your attention on what made, or makes, the subject of the speech important, positive, or worth remembering. Make sure to describe their accomplishments in detail without embellishment. Humor is acceptable as long as it is light and inoffensive; however, if you are unsure if a joke or anecdote meets that standard it is probably better to forgo trying to be funny. Finally, you should try to remain in control of your emotions, so you don’t get distracted and talk for too long. Typically, a eulogy/tribute is 5-10 minutes.
• Toast: Toasts and roasts are often given at celebratory events such as weddings, birthdays, housewarmings, or graduation. In the U.S. a toast is usually signified when a person is given the opportunity to speak publicly by an event or sign (e.g., at weddings, a toast may be initiated by lightly tapping a utensil to a glass). Toasts are often sentimental, heartwarming, and/or humorous, and mark an occasion as one to be celebrated. Conversely, during a roast, you may be one in a list of people meant to make fun of a person as you simultaneously honor them. It is important to remember your audience when deciding what kind of humor or jokes you will use at the honoree’s expense. In either toasts or roasts, you should not reveal guarded secrets, tell deeply embarrassing stories, or recount serious disagreements with others. A toast or roast should be lighthearted and elevate the mood of the audience. Typically, toasts and roasts are two to five minutes in length.

Regardless of which type of speech you are called to perform, it is important that you read the rhetorical situation carefully and match your tone, content, and style to the context. Not doing so can create awkwardness, embarrassment, or anger. A well-constructed performative speech has the potential to entertain, bring closure, and honor others whereas a poorly constructed speech can offend, exacerbate pain, or embarrass others. It is up to you to prepare and perform in a way that will elevate your communication and reach your audience.

“Today, I’m going to show you how to cook the perfect pot of pasta. Now, I know what you’re thinking, ‘How hard is it to cook pasta? You just boil some water, throw the pasta in it, and wait until it’s soft.’ But, if this is your approach to cooking pasta, then I’m afraid you’re doing it all wrong!

Jason kept Allison in frame of the camera as she moved around the kitchen. She had been making how-to videos on cooking for YouTube for nearly a year now and was approaching 500,000 subscribers. Although they didn’t make enough revenue to quit their jobs, they knew they were on track to their goals to become full-time content creators.

“First, bring water to boil in a large pan. You may think adding salt to the water will make it boil faster, but this is not true. However, you DO need to put salt in the water before putting the pasta in it. Otherwise, the pasta will turn out bland and flavorless.” Allison kept talking as she set the pot on the stove and added the salt.

“Next, when the water is boiling, put the pasta in it. You want to get all the pasta submerged and cooking as quickly as possible. Otherwise, your pasta will be cooked on one end and raw on the other.” Jason zoomed his camera to the pot as Allison put the pasta into the boiling water. “Then, you want to lightly stir the pasta every few minutes to make sure it doesn’t clump up.”

“Finally, you may be tempted to use a colander to drain your pasta of all its water. Don’t do that! Reserve one or two cups of the pasta water so you can make a homemade sauce. The starch and salt in the water will make a silky-smooth texture for your sauce and really kick it up a notch. Check out our next video on how to make a garlic-tomato sauce in five minutes!”

“That’s a wrap,” Jason exclaimed as he turned off the camera. “Great job!”

“You think so? I felt I was a little scattered when finding the ingredients. Can we do another shot?” Allison asked.

“Sure,” Jason said as he raised his camera. “We’ll make sure we get it perfect.”

Whether watching a person demonstrate a new gadget to a small group or watching a “Let’s Play” video for a million YouTube fans, informative presentations are a ubiquitous part of our daily lives. In your public and professional lives, you will need to develop the ability to clearly communicate information with others in ways that make it relevant, exciting, interesting, and engaging. Informative speaking is a way to pass knowledge onto others, whether formally (e.g., teachers to students) or informally (e.g., parents to their children). Sometimes informative speaking may be very linear and task oriented (e.g., how to fix a carburetor or change a battery) or non-linear and open-ended (e.g., telling the story of the Boy Who Cried Wolf). Regardless of the circumstance, being able to address the rhetorical purpose of the informative speech while meeting the rhetorical situation will ensure you have a lasting impact on the audience.

The purpose of an informative presentation is to give completely new knowledge, skills, or understanding about the topic to your audience. For example, giving a presentation on how to make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich would probably not count as an informative presentation because almost everyone knows how to make one (unless your audience happened to be a room full of 5-year-old children). What is most important is that your presentation does not try to persuade the audience toward any goal or outcome. That would be more appropriate in a persuasive presentation, which we will discuss in the next section. In informative speaking, your rhetorical purpose is only to give the best knowledge available to your audience about a particular subject, not call them toward any particular action. The rhetorical purposes that best characterize informative speaking are:

• To Describe: This type of presentation is given to detail information regarding an object, person, animal, place, event, or idea. This rhetorical purpose characterizes the jobs of teachers, corporate trainers, consultants, and human resources managers, but also a wide range of other jobs and situations. You may be called on to describe a new product or service, explain a difficult concept to a student, or illustrate the most important events of a car crash or crime to the police. Presentations with a descriptive purpose can be technical (e.g., the way to calculate the APR on a car loan) or metaphorical (e.g., my love for you is like a red rose).
• To Demonstrate: The type of presentation is given to instruct others about following a process that achieves a certain goal. This rhetorical purpose is seen in how-to videos (like the one that opened this chapter), lessons in classrooms, and on-the-job training. The important difference between a demonstration and descriptive speech is that the former actually shows the process of the presentation topic while explaining how to do it (e.g., showing how to repair a bike tire flat while fixing one) whereas the latter only describes it.
• To Report: This type of presentation is given to update others on the ongoing situation. This rhetorical purpose is often demonstrated in contexts such as meeting updates, political briefings, or annual/monthly reports. For example, if you are working on a political campaign as an organizer, you may need to give weekly reports to the candidate’s headquarters on budget, volunteers, and neighborhood coverage.

Because informative presentations are context-dependent, expectations for their duration can vary widely. Briefings may be only thirty seconds or a full hour, school lessons are typically 45-90 minutes long, and demonstrations are as long as it takes to actually show and explain the process. However, you want to make sure that you are being respectful of your audience’s time and not going longer than what is needed.

When it comes to performing an informative presentation, you should organize your materials in a way that makes the information easy for your audience to understand and use. Knowing different types of organizational strategies, then, is a crucial component of being an effective public speaker. We suggest that you choose a topic that you want to inform your audience about and then, based on that decision, pick one of the strategies below that you feel best highlights the important components of your topic. These strategies include:

• Chronological: Used when giving a presentation where the sequence of events matters to the overall history or process you are describing. For example, you may wish to detail the process of criminal justice legislation as it relates to criminal activity or demonstrate the steps to installing a kayak rack on the roof of a car.
• Topical: Used in presentations where the overall topic has natural subtopics. For example, in a speech about dogs who compete in dog shows, you might divide the presentation into parts about different breeds of dogs or sizes of dogs.
• Spatial: Used to describe a person, place, or event as it relates to the context or space it is connected to. For example, comparing Six Flags Amusement Parks based on which city they are located.

These organizational strategies of informative presentations ensure that the knowledge you wish to relate to your audience is relevant, interesting, and succinct. Think about how you can help your audience retain information, stay engaged, and remember the information you chose to share. Never lose sight of the most important goal of an informative presentation: Giving the audience new information or knowledge about a topic that is relevant to them. Craft your delivery to this rhetorical purpose and we promise that your audience will benefit from your presentation.

“Look, there’s no better time to purchase a car than right now. And this is the car for you,” Jose kept a smile on his face as he showed the new vehicle to the buyer, Todd. Todd had come into the car dealership looking to purchase a new vehicle, even though his current one was still in good condition. However, he felt like purchasing a new vehicle now made sense for his budget.

“I don’t know,” Todd replied. “It looks like there’s more rust under this car than I would expect for its age. Do you know if the previous owner cleaned the undercarriage regularly?”

“No, but you know, cars these days are built to withstand a bit of rust,” Jose said. “You can’t expect a used car to be rust free when you live this far north.”

“That’s true, I guess,” Todd said slowly. “But I think it might make more sense to just buy a brand-new car if I’m going to make a purchase. You know– not inherit someone else’s problems.”

“I totally agree,” Jose said smoothly. “But you’ll have to wait up to three months for a new car. You can drive this baby off the lot right now. Let me tell you what, I’ll knock $1,000 off the price right now if you’ll follow me back and sign the paperwork.”

Todd’s head snapped as he came out of his reverie, “Nah, that’s okay. I don’t think this is the situation that I want to buy a car in, sorry. You take care.” And with that, he started to walk toward the exit.

“Wait, wait, wait,” Jose said, catching up to him. “Did I say $1,000? I meant $1,500!”

“And I’m still at ‘no.’ Goodbye.” Todd walked out the door, proud of himself but a little unsure. He knew he’d avoided being pressured into a bad deal, but he still wanted to buy a car. “Oh well,” he thought, “Plenty of other dealerships in the area.”

When most people think of persuasive speaking, they imagine a scenario much like Todd’s. That is, they are usually on the receiving end of a salesperson, telemarketer, time-share huckster, or other professional whose sole purpose is to get someone to buy their product or service. As a result, many people have a negative perception of persuasive speaking because it is viewed as a tactic of coercion. However, persuasion differs from coercion in that it does not use force, violence, or threats nor does it hide, lie about, or obfuscate information. Certainly, there are those who abuse the ethics of public speaking and put their own goals before their audiences. However, true persuasion only occurs when the audience acts or thinks differently based on their own free will to make an informed choice.

A persuasive presentation is communication with an intent to change, reinforce, or influence others’ actions, attitudes, or values. Persuasive communication can occur between two people (as our opening example showed) or can be a speaker toward a group or crowd of listeners. Importantly, persuasion is assumed when there is intent on the part of a speaker to influence the listener(s). Wearing a t-shirt with your favorite band is not a form of persuasion whereas telling your friend why your favorite band is the best band in the world would be considered persuasive speech. In trying to persuade others, you should strive to be fact-based and ethical. Although you can influence others through unethical means (like Jose tried to do by pressuring Todd), often those tactics will either not work or may even backfire.

For example, Todd may now tell his friends and family, or write an online review, about his negative experiences at the car dealership and suggest others avoid purchasing vehicles there. Now, not only has Jose lost Todd’s business, but it’s also possible that he will lose other customers as well. To make sure you are attending correctly to the rhetorical situation, we encourage you to think about the rhetorical purpose that best fits your needs. Persuasive presentations are usually characterized by one of the following purposes:

• To Convince: This type of presentation is given to change the attitudes or values of an audience whose beliefs differ from yours. This type of rhetorical purpose is present in almost all aspects of life since we typically want those we are in contact with to have attitudes or values that match our own. For example, if you and your friend disagree about the quality of a television show, you will likely try to get them to see why it is as good (or bad) as you think it is.
• To Motivate: This type of presentation is given to stimulate the attitudes or values of an audience whose beliefs match yours. This type of rhetorical purpose is present in a great deal of religious sermons since most people who listen to the religious leader are part of the same religious group. In this case, the paster, priest, monk, rabbi, or other type of religious leader is not trying to convince someone to convert; rather, they are reinforcing the beliefs of those who are already converted (e.g., telling them they are the chosen people of their particular deity).
• To Actuate: This type of presentation is given to call the audience to action on the topic you are addressing. This type of rhetorical purpose is present in a great deal of political speech, where candidates routinely ask the audience to support them. For example, a candidate might encourage the audience to vote for them, canvas a neighborhood to raise support for a particular bill, or walk in a demonstration.

Obviously, a persuasive presentation can be characterized by more than one of these rhetorical purposes. Often, you will hear or give speeches that combine the purposes of convincing-actuating or motivating-actuating. However, it is vital that you recognize your rhetorical situation, so you don’t give a presentation that is ineffective based on its purpose. For example, if you were to give a speech with the purpose to motivate-actuate about the need for vegans to lobby support for more vegetarian food programs to the Cattlemen’s Beef Board and National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, you’d probably find your message being completely ineffective. Similarly, knowing when and how to try to convince, motivate, or actuate your audience will be key to your presentation success.

An important thing to remember is that being given a platform to speak does not mean that you should choose whatever topic is of interest to you simply because you find it interesting. You need to recognize your rhetorical situation and make sure you are picking a presentation topic and tone that fits it. For example, you might feel very passionate about topics such as abortion, religious affiliation, or gender identity, but if you do not have a relationship with the audience or if you only have a limited amount of time to speak, then you will probably not be able to convince or actuate your audience on these issues. Instead, you will most likely entrench their preexisting beliefs, which is called the boomerang effect.

A persuasive presentation is not a time to pontificate nor is it a blank check to talk about whatever you desire; rather, it is an opportunity to establish a relationship with your audience and, through that connection, encourage them to see and act in the world the ways that you deem important, valuable, or ethical. When giving a persuasive presentation, you will find that you are often proposing or arguing for a certain point of view. As such, you’ll need to make sure that in your effort to persuade others, your propositions are supported. The three types of propositions are:

• Proposition of Fact: This type of proposition is concerned with the truthiness or falseness of the statement. In this instance, the speaker wishes to convince or motivate the audience by the credibility of the information being presented. For example, if the speaker wants to convince the audience that electric vehicles are more efficient than traditional vehicles, they will need to compare the environmental and financial costs using the most up-to-date and reliable information.
• Proposition of Value: This type of proposition addresses the beauty, wisdom, or morality of the proposition. For this type of speech, a speaker would attempt to convince or motivate the audience that their criteria for evaluating an action, belief, or idea is appropriate to the situation or superior to other types of criteria. For example, a speaker may argue that no-knock warrants are unconstitutional based on the values of privacy, personal property, and resisting government intrusion.
• Proposition of Action: This type of proposition details the procedures, policy, or behavior needed. When giving a speech of action, the speaker will need to convince or motivate the audience into agreeing that action is needed. Then, the speaker should detail the steps the action or actions will take, providing information on the necessity of each. For example, a speaker who wants to push for marijuana law reform will need to convince or motivate the audience that the lack of reform is a problem or that reforming will bring benefits. Then, they will need to explain each step the audience will need to take in their push for reform (e.g., demonstrations, letter writing campaigns, or voting).

Remembering the different propositions that characterize persuasive speaking can help you be a more effective speaker. For example, if the sources you use for information are not credible, then your audience may reject your propositions of fact. Or, if you have wildly different values than your audience, you will need to tailor your message to make sure your message is not immediately rejected. Remember that true persuasion only occurs when your audience is given the information and resources needed to come to a choice of their own free will. When people are treated with respect, and they make their choice to accept a new fact, value, or plan of action will they do so with the enthusiasm necessary to achieve your (and their) goals.

In this chapter we have shown three ways of overarching rhetorical purposes: to perform, to inform, and to persuade. We showed how each is characterized by a series of rhetorical situations and sub-types of rhetorical purposes in an effort to help you understand the complexity of meeting the demands of each rhetorical situation. Regardless of your rhetorical purpose, we believe that it is vital that you treat your audience ethically by ensuring that you perform with attention to detail, inform with all relevant information, and persuade by respecting your audience’s free will. Being an ethical speaker sometimes means that you will not be an effective speaker, but obtaining communication goals through lying or subterfuge will only undermine your credibility as you continue in your life within and beyond college.