One day, a scorpion wanted to cross a river but couldn’t swim, so it asked a frog to carry it across. The frog hesitated, saying, “I can bring you across, but I’m afraid you might sting me once I start to carry you.”

“I would never hurt someone who tried to help me!” the scorpion exclaimed, “Besides, if I did sting you, you’d die, and then we would both drown.”

The frog considered the scorpion’s words and couldn’t find a reason it would sting him. “Okay, climb on me then,” said the frog and they began to cross. Midway across the river, the scorpion stung the frog, who began to seize up and drown as the poison ran through it.

The dying frog gasped, as it began to sink, “Why would you sting me? Now I’m going to die and you’re going to drown!”

The scorpion replied “I am sorry, but I couldn’t help it. It’s in my nature.” – Russian Fable

What is identity? What makes you, you? Is it, as the fable might suggest, traits and dispositions hardwired into our very being? Are we determined by our biology to be certain types of people with little or no recourse for change or growth? Although certainly our genetics and physiology influence our behaviors, there is still a great deal of our personalities, attitudes, and beliefs that are a part of the society, family, and time period we are born into. For example, U.S. culture tends to be more extroverted, individualistic, competitive, and more likely to have loose-knit family structures when compared to other countries around the world.

One area where this manifests most is the way that older people are treated in our society. Whereas it is common in some countries to live with elder relatives and have as many as three or four generations living under one roof, many older people in the U.S. live by themselves until they either die or are unable to take care of themselves and enter elder care facilities. As a result, many U.S. Americans spend a great deal of time and resources making sure they can be independent in their later years, which shapes the way they approach work, family, and relationships over their lifespans. Culture influences our understanding of ourselves and our place in society, giving us important clues into how to live and be in the world.

The belief that who a person is or will be is determined by only nature or culture is, unsupported; Rather, it is only by understanding the two that we can develop a holistic picture of our potential as humans. One of the most important lessons about nature and culture is that the way we communicate about the two influences how we understand identity. What makes identity so complicated is how easy it is to believe that who we are is just natural and not the product of social and cultural norms.

For example, in the U.S. a person who is 17 years and 364 days old is still considered a child whereas an 18 is endowed with the rights and responsibilities of an adult. The difference between the two can be a matter of seconds and the criteria of 18 years (rather than 16, 21, or 25) is a social mandate not a biological one. However, we treat these two people as separate classes and act as if such a distinction is obvious and immutable. Truth be told, there is probably much more difference between an 36-year-old and an 18-year-old, and yet both are legally and socially speaking, both considered the same things—adults. Genetic traits, environmental factors (e.g., pollution), family dynamics, personal triumphs and trauma, social norms, and everyday decisions constitute who you are and who you can or will be. When we confuse cultural conventions for biological processes, we can quickly find ourselves with a language for identity that is insufficient for appreciating the complexity of the human experience across time and geography.

When studying identity, culture, and communication, we must understand that there is no right or correct way to approach the topic. Rather, there are a variety of approaches, each with its strengths and weaknesses, that are appropriate to different contexts. You’ll need to know all three because each offers different insights into the way that communication shapes and constrains our ability to imagine and pursue who we are and want to be.

Keisha starts to smile as she sees the “Social Media Manager” placard they just hung outside of her new office. She graduated from college just a few years ago, but it seems like it was an eternity before she landed her dream job at Widget Tech. As she enters the office and sits behind her desk, she looks around and silently revels in her new found life.

Her thoughts are interrupted by a knock on the door. It’s Steve, who is standing in the doorway, grin on his face, and a load of binders in his arms.

“Feels good, right?” he exclaims. “Sorry that I can’t let you enjoy it longer. But, we need to work on our media campaign ASAP.

“Of course,” Keisha says, bringing out her laptop. “Let’s get to it!”

After a few hours of reviewing the products that they want to highlight in the campaign, they decide it’s time to think about who they want to target with their social media outreach.

Steve says, “So, normally, we reach out to the demographic that buys the most widgets–white or Asian, between 25-35, urban, married with a family of 1-2 kids, and with a household income of $100K or more. What do you think? Is that still our target audience?

Keisha looks over the data from the public relations firm that produces their demographic reports. “I think we might be able to increase our market share if we look at the 30-35 African American and Hispanic groups. Especially those that are single with an income of $80K or more. If we can start to gain ground there, then we can start to expand to other subgroups within those categories.”

Steve gives her a pleased, appraising look, “See? This is why we hired you! I totally agree. Let’s plan on that being our next big outreach push.”

Perhaps the most common way to think about identity is as demographics. From political surveys to governmental forms, people fill out information regarding who they are. This information ensures businesses that they aren’t wasting money trying to build relationships with people who do not want or need them. Similarly, governmental data helps local, state, and federal agencies direct resources to communities, promote tourism, or develop new programs. Without demographic data, a great deal of time and money would be wasted by non-profit groups, political campaigns, and businesses as they try to meet the needs of their clientele.

Although each person can be understood as an individual (with their own unique sense of tastes, habits, and needs), demographic analysis helps us understand the broad trends that characterize groups or market segments. Demographic analysis allows individuals to effectively craft their messages for their audience. Once an audience is identified for communication messaging (e.g., public relations, political campaign, etc.), an organization can begin using targeted messages to encourage purchases, change or reaffirm opinions, or develop brand loyalty.

For example, Dove’s recent shifts away from using thin, white models to showing models with a variety of body sizes, shapes, and colors are a direct result of recognizing the demographics of their target audience. Although you may not think of yourself consciously as a series of demographic boxes, the truth is that who you are demographically can be used to make predictions about what you will buy, who you will marry, where you will live, and a host of other issues. Below are some of the most important demographic characteristics that organizations base their decisions on various factors.

Sex

A person’s sex is the assigned, legal status of a person based on physical attributes, such as genitals, skeletal structure, brain structure, and chromosomes. Traditionally, Western countries have recognized “Male” and “Female” as the two categories of sex. However, this tradition is quickly changing. In the United States, over 20 states recognize a third option on government documents as does the federal government. This is consistent with other cultures/nations, who recognize third options of sex, such as two-spirit (some Native American tribes), Muxe (Mexico), Hijras (India), and Bakla (Phillipines) (BBC, 2016).

Gender

An individual’s gender is the ways a person identifies or presents their sex. Gender consists of the behaviors, rituals, habits, and norms that people perform to be recognized as their desired identity. This can range from traditionally masculine to feminine forms of communication; that is, ways of communicating that society typically associate with one’s sex. For example, painting nails, wearing dresses or slacks, length of hair, and vocal pitch can all be ways of expressing one’s gender.

Race

When a person identifies with a race, they are typically attributed their identity based on physical and geographical attributes. In the United States, individuals usually pick some combination of African American/Black, Asian, Hispanic/Latinx/Latino-Latina, Native American, Pacific Islander, and White. Although we might think of race as self-evident and biological, they are better understood as broad social categories used to differentiate groups of people. For example, a Black woman born in Ethiopia may not think about herself as “Black” instead, she might think of herself as a “woman” or “Ethiopian” or part of the “Hamer tribe.” However, if she were to travel to the United States, many people would perceive her as “Black” and interact with her based on that identity.

Ethnicity

The ethnicity of a person refers to the cultural, social, religious, and linguistic experiences and expressions that characterize their ethnic identity. Taking the example from above, the Ethiopian woman–although physically looking like a Black person–probably has different cultural expressions than a typical African American. That is, her ethnicity is influenced by her nationality, tribal identity, gender, and a host of other factors that influence her norms, habits, rituals, and linguistic attributes.

Age/Generation

Generations are generally understood as groups of people in similar age, and have similar ideas, experiences, expectations, and attitudes. Typical names for generations include Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, and Zoomers. There are broad trends that can be ascribed to different generations, such as the desire for material possessions (Boomers) as opposed to life experiences and travel (Millennials) (Bacon, 2015).

Socioeconomic Status

A person’s socioeconomic status (SES) is their earning potential, income, occupation, wealth (e.g., stocks, property, or financial assets), and educational attainment. This status can be portrayed in different ways, such as Low/Medium/High or Poverty/Working-class/Professional/Wealthy. There is no one way to measure SES nor agreed upon labels. Furthermore, most U.S. citizens do not describe their SES as a part of who they are. However, their SES is an important indicator of their lifestyle, financial choices, and leisure activities.

Location

Whether globally, nationally, or locally, a person’s location can predict important components of their life, such as homeownership, socioeconomic status, nationality, and dialect. Furthermore, where a person lives can be a strong indicator of what types of goods and services they may wish to purchase. Not only are consumer patterns correlated with location, individuals’ regionalisms, sayings, and dialects change as well. For example, if you wanted to order a Dr. Pepper in the U.S., you would order a “soda” on the coasts, a “pop” in the Midwest, or a “coke” in the south (Business Insider, 2018).

Political Affiliation

Within the U.S., party identification is a strong predictor of a person’s moral, religious, and familial beliefs. The role of spirituality, occupation, friendship, and recreation in a person’s life are valued differently based on one’s identification with the Republican or Democratic party (or with a third party). In fact, the types of differences, and their magnitude, between people who identify with the two parties in the United States are much higher than the differences found among people from other countries based on their country’s political parties (Pew, 2021). Additionally, studies consistently show that an individuals’ party loyalty rarely changes, even in periods of uncertainty. For example, since 2018, only about 1 in 10 Republicans switched to the Democratic Party and about the same amount of Democrats switched to Republican (Pew, 2020).

Brand Loyalty

Ford vs. Chevy, Coke vs. Pepsi, PC vs. Mac–the types of products one uses can send a powerful message to others about their values, attitudes, and beliefs. Some products capitalize on this phenomenon through marketing. For example, some products tout their environmental benefits, others assure the consumer that charitable donations are made with their purchase, and others tie their product to peoples’ desire to be perceived as strong, beautiful, or intelligent. Importantly, people often unthinkingly communicate their brand loyalties (and, as a result, parts of their lifestyle) to others everyday through their clothing, jewelry, food, and transportation.

As communicators, demographics provide us important information about ourselves and others. For example, in giving a speech, we might do an inventory of our own demographics–are our attributes valued by our audience? And, what are the audience’s demographics? Are they consistent with ours as the speaker? In order to inform, persuade, or motivate others, it will be important for you to understand the answers to these questions so as to craft your messages to be best received by your audience. Whether creating a public relations campaign, informing others about an important political issue, or overseeing the work of a group within an organization, knowing the demographics of your audience can be the difference between success and failure. Although certainly not guaranteed, conducting a demographic inventory of your target audience and yourself will increase your chances for success.

One of the strengths of this approach to identity is that it provides very clear rubrics for ascertaining success within a communicative event. A person should evaluate what demographic information is relevant to their communicative purpose and conduct the necessary surveys, polls, and research to obtain their information. Identity, in this view, is readily apprehendable, standardized, and stable–a series of boxes to be checked. As such, it makes it easier to describe, explain, and predict human behavior based on their demographic information. At the same time, the principal weakness of this approach is that it does not give us a very nuanced understanding of identity, particularly as it relates to culture.

For example, although we might know a person identifies as Latinx, and they may enjoy guacamole, demographic analysis will not help us learn about the role of guacamole as a part of culture and identity rather than just a form of food. Guacamole is a dish with a deep history, starting in the ancient Aztec society (the Nahuatl word for it was āhuacamolli, meaning avocado sauce) where it was eaten for its nutritional value as well as used as an aphrodisiac (Food Origins, n. d.). How one makes guacamole may be connected to the region the family came from in Mexico; it may also be a part of their family recipe passed down over generations–with differences based on personal hardship, creative flair, or a funny anecdote. To get at these specific and nuanced details, we’ll need an approach to culture that is more sensitive to the ways people create identity.

Darrin looked down at his white robes and then back across the congregation room to his friend Sam. Sam was wearing the same robes, although he hadn’t noticed Darrin’s gaze; instead, he was staring out across the congregation with eyes that seemed to encompass everyone. Both men had recently turned 18 and had been given the task of passing out the communion wine and wafers.

“We are gathered today to take communion, rejoicing in He who died for our sins. Darrin, Sam, please pass out the wafers,” intoned Pastor Bob, with hands lifted high.

Both men quickly walked around the room, passing out the wafers. Each person took one, many people using both hands to cradle it until the proper moment. When everyone had been served, Pastor Bob recited, “Jesus said, ‘This is my body which was given for you, do this in remembrance of Me,” and, as one, the entire congregation ate their wafer.

“The blood of Jesus was shed for our sins, let us rejoice for his sacrifice,” Pastor Bob declared. “Darrin, Sam, pass out the communion wine.”

To understand identity and culture as a social construction, we must think of the rituals, norms, proverbs, and rules of humans as contextual and historically based. That is, who we are is inextricably linked to the people who came before us and who surround us. Take Darrin–he identifies as a Christian, but what socially constructs him as such? Most obviously, he is partaking in a ritual that is common in many churches (although practiced differently according to denomination or sect): communion. But, also think about the specific ways that it is practiced in his congregation: his attire, his age, the pastor’s speech while it is given, the way people hold or consume the wafer, the order by which they consume the bread and wine, and more. All of these practices have deep, communicative meaning–they create or constitute Darrin’s identity as a Christian.

As communication scholars such as Philipsen (1975) might assert, identity as a social construction relies on two important components: avowed and ascribed identities. Avowed identities are a person’s self-perception, and encompasses all of the beliefs a person has about their own sense of self. On the other hand, ascribed identities are those perceptions that others have of a person based on that person’s group membership.  The communicative interplay between avowed and ascribed identities–what communication scholars call intersubjectivity–is the way that communication builds or creates identities. That is, the way that we come to know who we are and where we belong is through the dynamic, ongoing process of communication with our peers.

An important component of understanding identity as socially constructed is to treat culture as a historical and dynamic process. Unlike the demographic approach, where a person may be labeled as gay, white, or Muslim and that identity is perceived to be uniformly understood, a social construction perspective is interested in understanding how those cultural groups mold, change, and adapt to influence people in their day-to-day lives. Take, for example, the idea that identity is associated with one’s lineage. Many people in the U.S. might say, “I’m 3/4ths Japanese” or “I’m half Italian on my mom’s side.”

However, looking at lineage is not as straightforward as it seems. Take the history of Native Americans and African Americans as it relates to lineage or, as it was called, blood quantum laws. For many Native Americans, proving that one’s blood quantum is high enough to merit enrollment into the tribal records and be recognized as a part of the tribe is important. Conversely, African Americans were subject to the one-drop rule, where any lineage of Black people in the family automatically made that person Black (and, as a result, disenfranchised through a host of Jim Crow laws). In this case, many people would deny or hide their Black ancestry because of discrimination and racism against Black people. In short, what appeared to be self-evident about identity (lineage), is in fact, historically and contextually driven.

Treating culture as historical and dynamic means we must understand how groups of people come to establish the parameters of in-group membership. These include rituals, proverbs, rules, and norms.

Rituals

A ritual consists of a social performance of patterned behavior to effect or participate in serious life (see Rothenbehuler, 1998). There are few components to unpack in this definition. First, we can think of ritualized communication as a performance–that is, that it has a script that a person either follows (and is most likely rewarded) or doesn’t (and is most likely punished or seen as deviant). These scripts manifest in all aspects of human life and become ingrained over time to appear as normal or natural. Take the example of communion, many denominations believe that the bread and the wine are not just symbolic representations of Jesus’ body and blood, but actually become those things upon consumption (i.e., transubstantiation). To an outsider, the idea that people are literally eating a person’s body and drinking their blood may seem barbaric or weird, but to many Christians, it is a routine and normal occurrence. Second, the idea of serious life is to say that rituals occur where social standing can be won or lost through one’s adherence to, or rejection of, ritualized behavior. Refusing to take communion or drinking communion wine to excess may be viewed as sacrilegious or an affront to the Church or God. Rituals can be designated formal rites (e.g., wedding ceremonies) or everyday routine forms of interaction (e.g., handshakes). Overall, rituals are powerful forms of communication that often are impervious to changing quickly.

Proverbs

Whether called sayings, stories, parables, fables, or riddles, proverbs are forms of communication that often impart wisdom, offer advice, or reinforce morals. Proverbs such as The Boy or Cried Wolf, The Little Red Hen, or the Fox and Grapes help guide human behavior by offering truths that each new generation discovers. Proverbs are viewed as a part of serious life because they are often handed down from generation to generation, making them historically and culturally weighty. This differentiates them from jokes, since jokes are usually not viewed as advice or nursery rhymes, which are often memorized but impart no moral truth. The proverbs of a society reveal its political, social, and economic structure. For example, in the U.S., people may say “time is money” in reference to the belief that all activity should be bent toward maximizing one’s investment by moving quickly. This proverb reveals the structures of the U.S. political economy and explains why many U.S. citizens choose faster forms of travel, communication, or food than other countries.

Rules

Social rules are explicitly codified guides for actions, behaviors, or beliefs. The most obvious form of social rules are the laws of a country. In this case, there is little ambiguity, and the process by which one is accused of, tried, and sentenced may be relatively transparent. Rules may also govern organizational communication (e.g., an Employee Code of Conduct) or activities such as sports. The most important characteristic of social rules is that they are arbitrary (in the sense that a rule could be created to promote/prohibit any action) but are almost universally understood, if not always accepted, by the population. In other words, a rule has moral or legal force either because a population believes it does or because there are other social structures (e.g., courts) to enforce social consequences.

Norms

Social norms, unlike rules, are usually tacitly or implicitly understood guidelines for actions, behaviors, or beliefs. For example, your classroom teacher may not have a rule in their syllabus about talking during class, but most likely, you will raise your hand if you wish to be called upon to contribute to discussion. Furthermore, you will most likely wait with your hand raised while someone else is talking to both signal your desire to contribute while also showing that you are not being impolite by speaking over or on top of the other person. Finally, you will not start talking until the teacher has acknowledged you (and not someone else) as the next one to speak. These behaviors reveal a series of norms that guide classroom talk like turn taking, politeness, and deference to authority. Violations of norms usually don’t carry explicit consequences, but that doesn’t mean they can be transgressed easily. Failing to adhere to norms can result in social death– and sometimes literal death– if a person does not follow the norms of a particular culture.

By understanding the rituals, proverbs, rules, and norms of a society, we get a good idea of what its culture is and what the values of its people are. Broadly speaking, societies can be scored on a continuum between collectivist and individualistic. Collectivist cultures have rituals, proverbs, rules, and norms that both exemplify and perpetuate the notion that groups are more important than the individual, that social standing within the group is based on homogeneity (i.e., aligning with the group and not rocking the boat), that deference to seniority or elders is preferred, that familial structures are the most important relationships, and that decisions should be made in the interest of group cohesion (not necessarily success). In studying Chinese culture, you can see how their rituals, proverbs, rules, and norms demonstrate that it is a highly collectivist culture.

For example, a common ritual at dinner would be a Chinese woman serving food to a grandfather before serving others in the household due to his age and sex. If she lets people serve themselves, she puts herself at risk of being looked down on or ostracized by others because she is not supporting the traditional group structure. Conversely, individualistic cultures tend to display rituals, proverbs, rules, and norms that privilege the individual over the group. These cultures are characterized by beliefs such as individuals’ rights are the most important, social standing is based on personal responsibility and effort (i.e., meritocracy), that authority must be worthy of power, and that decisions should be made to maximize the chances of success (even at the expense of the group). The United States is a highly individualistic culture, which can be seen in the informal ways that people get food at large family gatherings. Often, the food is spread out over a large table and each person gets in line and takes their turn serving themselves with less regard for age or status.

One of the primary strengths of the identity/culture as a social construct perspective is that it offers a rich, nuanced understanding of what a culture is and who a person is and can be by studying their rituals, proverbs, rules, and norms. In this way, we can see people not just as a series of demographic characteristics, but as “real people, humankind alive” (Conquergood, 1985, p. 2). That is, our love, trust, deference, disgust, anger, or hatred are all influenced by the contextual and historical forces that shape our communicative choices. Practically, application of this perspective would entail thinking about how you can use rituals, proverbs, rules, and norms to create community in the workplace, in a classroom, for an event, or among an audience during speech, and how that community might create change for the better. Although these strengths are important, this perspective is not without its limitations.

Most importantly, this perspective does not do a good job of accounting for how identities are often not taken up, practiced, or performed by a group of people, but are, instead, imposed on one group to another as an expression of power. For example, the belief that Jewish people control all media and banks or hold world governments in thrall are antisemitic beliefs. In this case, identity is ascribed, but with no concern for the truth or accuracy of the depictions; rather, they are stereotypes used to demonize, humiliate, and oppress a group of people. To better understand this component of identity/culture, we need to understand them as a function of hegemony.

When exploring identity and culture as hegemony, it’s important to realize that everyone’s perception of the world is shaped and constrained by power. The relationship between culture and identity within this perspective is called constitutive. That is, culture sets the terrain for what kind of identities are possible, anchoring those practices in the material and economic realities people experience. Identities, then, are the ways that people take up, defer, reject, or subvert those cultural conventions to create a coherent sense of self. Culture and identity are always mutually informing one another, which is why styles, habits, and tastes in fashion are always changing. Influencing this relationship is the exertion of power, where the struggle for what is normal, neutral, necessary, or natural occurs in ways that are large and small, overt or covert, individually and socially.

For example, in the United States, a person’s understanding of gender may be informed by anti-trans hate speech–by media outlets, podcasts, or web sites–who then will act on those ideas by passing anti-trans laws or rules, committing acts of violence, or making insults to gender non-conforming people. All of these acts add to the constitutive process of identity and culture and have the effect of casting gender non-conforming people as abnormal, deviant, evil, or unnatural. Power can be used for oppression or liberation; that is, the hegemonic beliefs of a society are ones that can curtail or promote people’s ability to live free from fear and deprivation.

Importantly, the use of oppressive power is not done simply because of fear or anxiety. To extend on our example, anti-trans sentiments are not always, or even primarily, about transphobia or the fear of trans people. Instead, oppressive power is used when a group of people identify a subgroup within their society that can be constructed as a threat and in need of control or elimination. In this way, a group of people can gain or maintain control over an organization, institution, or nation by making a group of people into a scapegoat. Typically, scapegoats are useful as mystifications of current political-economic arrangements; that is, by blaming scapegoats as traitors, unnatural, or subversives, a group of people can lead the public to vent their anger, frustration, or disillusionment at the scapegoat and not the people in power.

As Genocide Watch (2020) details in their Ten Steps of Genocide, communication is an incredibly powerful tool for identifying how the subordination or elimination of a group of people is pursued by the dominant group in their effort to gain or maintain power: classification, symbolisation, discrimination, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, persecution, extermination, and denial.

Classification

The first step of genocide is to emphasize the differences between groups, creating a clear “us” vs. “them” culture. It is natural for humans to have their own beliefs, rituals, or habits and to celebrate differences (e.g., Black History Month). However, classification occurs when a group of people is convinced that those differences are immediate cause for suspicion or alarm. This can occur when there are not enough opportunities for people of different groups to co-mingle and reduce their prejudice through intergroup contact (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). For example, white people who live in predominantly white communities often exhibit higher rates of racial resentment and stereotyping than those who live in more racially heterogeneous areas (Nelson & Petsko, 2020). This finding is true in many instances–that is, the more homogeneous a group tends to be (whether ethnic, religious, or political), the more likely they are to see those in different groups as threats, sinful, or enemies.

Symbolisation

The process of symbolisation details how a group of people is marked in ways that distinguish them from the oppressive group. Sometimes, this marking is done by a dominant group to a subordinate group, such as when the Nazis put stars on Jewish people (or, in the opening example of this section, green wristbands). To address this practice, people who are not a part of the targeted group can adopt the symbols of the oppressed to make it harder for the oppressive group to use it as an instrument of punishment. For example, Phil Rodriguez wore a crop top to his high school to demonstrate how dress code enforcement was sexist toward female students (Parker, 2017). Other times, a group has created symbols for itself and those are used against them by the dominant group. Black and African American people’s hair–its upkeep, its style, and its texture–all have deep symbolic significance. The importance of hair is why white racists have targeted Black and African American people about their hair style–it serves to emphasize differences (i.e., classification) while trying to turn something that is a source of pride into a source of pain.

Discrimination

Although classification and symbolisation are present to some extent in any society, discrimination occurs when those norms are coded into rules or laws in ways that makes a group politically vulnerable or impotent. Same sex couples did not have their marriages recognized by the government and, as a result, were unable to enjoy the some legal protections as opposite sex couples until the Obergefell v. Hodges Supreme Court decision. Still, many LGBT people can be unfairly evicted from their home, barred from adoption, and denied partner benefits (e.g., insurance) because their relationships are discriminated against.

Dehumanization

The process of dehumanization usually occurs through government-sponsored propaganda or private/corporate hate speech. Government officials who dehumanize usually do so by promoting the idea that a group is dangerous, cunning, lazy, or sexually aggressive. This encourages listeners to see members of the dehumanized group as less than human and therefore undeserving of social support, legal protection, or even basic human rights. Private/corporate hate speech occurs when media outlets–most often social media outlets–use their platforms to attack a group’s identity or promote violence. For example, as Media Matters (2018) documents, Tucker Carlson who was one of the most watched news pundits at Fox News, repeatedly made dehumanizing statements after the U.S. invasion of Iraq:

Notice how, in each instance, Carlson’s rhetoric is about constructing the United States (and, in particular, white people) as human, benevolent, and civilized while describing Iraqis as inhuman. This type of rhetoric is especially dangerous because it can mobilize people to engage in violent and destructive behaviors.

Organization

Oppression and genocide eventually become organized, most often through the government, but also through paramilitary organizations and self-proclaimed militia. Historically, the Nazi SS were the arm of the government responsible for the rounding up, detention, and extermination of millions of Jews, Poles, disabled people, Romani, and homosexuals. More recently, the U.S. Border Patrol has been accused of engaging in this practice by detaining immigrants and asylum seekers in detention centers. There have been allegations that these centers have deprived immigrants of basic services and have performed forced hysterectomies on immigrant women (Treisman, 2020). These types of practices–rounding people up into a single area, depriving them of basic necessities, and carrying out violence against them–all constitute organized genocidal impulses.

Polarization

A key factor in carrying out oppression or other genocidal practices is to ensure that individuals who are not explicitly targeted (e.g., moderates within the dominant group or members of non-targeted groups) are unable to stop violence from happening. Governmental and political party propaganda is used to intimidate, silence, and incite violence against moderates who speak out against the dominant groups. Polarization makes it to where the dominant group views any dissent, compromise, or second-guessing as weakness or insufficiently loyal to the cause and therefore the grounds for punishment. This, in turn, ensures that people within the dominant group become increasingly radical as their group rewards the most extreme behavior. As a result, the group becomes disconnected from the majority of the public, which in turn, leads them to be more draconian in asserting their power over others in an effort to maintain control.

Preparation

The next step toward genocide is the dominant group mobilizing their forces and weaponry in order to get ready for the call to violence. Propaganda about the threat from the oppressed group is amplified in order to make the population more fearful, thus justifying the use of extreme measures as acts of defense.  Preparation rhetoric is often euphemistic (e.g., the Nazi’s calling their program of genocide the “Final Solution”) or or exalted (e.g., right-wing paramilitaries and QAnon conspiracists calling their treasonous acts against the government “The Storm”). However it occurs, what is important is that the oppressive group obtains the means and motivation to exercise violence on those they see as enemies or insufficiently loyal.

Persecution

Armed and angry, the dominant group is now able to execute their genocidal plans. Often, the dominant group will first enact laws to expropriate the homes, business, and assets of the oppressed groups or sympathizers. Little or no pretext is given as the dominant group rounds up, detains, or kills members of the oppressed group. Public protest against the dominant group is virtually absent because most dissidents have been killed, jailed, or cowed into fear.

Extermination

Now that the dominant group has complete control over the mechanisms of society, they can begin to make their genocidal ambitions more efficient and effective. Members of the oppressed group and their sympathizers are killed in a systematic fashion whether through gas chambers, mass shootings, chemical/biological weapons, targeted bombings, or drone strikes.

Denial

The most crucial component of genocide is denial. Throughout all the early steps, the oppressive group assures others that they are acting prudently, carefully, and out of an abundance of caution. The proponents of so-called “Bathroom Bills’ utilize this rhetoric when introducing anti-trans legislation. When confronted with the fact that there has been no documented cases of a trans person assaulting women or children in bathrooms, they often reply “Sure, they haven’t…yet. So, let’s make sure we keep women and children safe by passing this law. Law-abiding citizens won’t be affected by it anyway.” As the stages move toward more explicit violence, the oppressive party denies their aggression by painting themselves as the victim. After mass violence has taken place, the dominant group will try to erase their deeds from history whether by changing curriculum in schools, utilizing mass unmarked burial sites, or destroying evidence of their crimes.

In the face of oppressive forces, people within a society have tools for resistance at their disposal. Some of these tools are so ingrained in our society that we don’t even realize that they have the power to counteract oppression. For example, organizations such as public schools are places where young people from various walks of life can congregate and learn from each other. This has the effect of promoting social cohesion and mitigating genocidal tendencies because it makes demonizing a group difficult when there is ample and free intergroup communication. Other types of resistance are more explicit and can take the form of social protest, demonstrations, or acts of civil disobedience. Regardless of the type of resistance you feel comfortable engaging in, being able to identify and challenge the 10 steps of genocide is a moral responsibility shared by all people.

One of the strengths of the identity/culture as a hegemony perspective is that it provides a clear language for individuals to use in understanding how communication can be used to harm people or heal our society. In doing so, it asserts that our obligation to each other is best realized in creating a culture where no identity is targeted and, instead, we can all learn and grow together. For example, organizations that promote civility, address racial injustices, identify patterns of gender violence, or other groups can all be a part of a wide-tapestry of connection that serves to promote social and community cohesion, to set cultural expectations, and to push back against institutions that promote racism, anti-LGBT sentiments, and gender oppression. The weakness of this perspective is that it is less useful in planning a public relations campaign or building a demographic database.

Throughout this chapter we have shown three ways of studying identity, culture, and communication. We have discussed identity/culture as demographics, as social constructions, and as hegemony. As we have said before, there is no right or correct way to approach the topic; however, each of these perspectives has its strengths and weaknesses, which are appropriate to different contexts. By learning all three, we hope you can be and be successful in college, career, and civic life–although what success entails will differ based on the approach you are using as you seek to inform, persuade, and motivate people.