Segmentals
3 Vowels
Agata Guskaroska
- To define vowels and their characteristics
- To explore innovative ways to teach vowel pronunciation to students
- To introduce teachers to minimal pairs and ways to use them in the classroom
- To provide exercises for most commonly mispronounced vowels
3.1 What are vowels?
Vowels are sounds that are produced with no air blockage from the tongue, lips, or throat. They differ from each other based on tongue movement, lip rounding, and tenseness. Based on the tongue position in the mouth, vowels can be classified as high, mid, or low; and front, central, or back. Figure 3.1 below, representing the mouth, shows the most common sounds of GA English.
Vowels differ based on whether they are produced with rounded or unrounded lips while producing the sound. Four back vowels in English (/ʊ/, /ᴜ/, /o/, and /ɔ/) are pronounced with different degrees of lip rounding. The rest of the vowels in GA English are unrounded.
Last but not least, vowels differ based on the tension of the tongue, neck, and jaw muscles. This distinction is important because it is the main difference between certain GA vowels. For example, the sounds /ɪ/ and /i/ in chip and cheap , have similar tongue positions and lip shapes, but /ɪ/ is a lax vowel while /i/ is tense.
Most vowels are pure and have only one sound, but some vowels contain two sounds in which the sound begins as one vowel and moves toward another. These sounds are called called diphthongs. The most common diphthongs in GA (illustrated in Figure 3.2 below) are /aʊ/ (town , /aɪ/ (light , /eɪ/ (play , /oʊ/ (slow ), /ɔɪ/ (toy ). Many learners have only pure vowels in their languages instead of diphthongs; therefore, they tend to pronounce two pure vowels for these sounds.
It should be noted that there are some differences in vowel pronunciation that are affected by several factors, such as the sounds they occur next to, and suprasegmental features, such as word stress, and phrasal prominence. For example, vowels tend to be longer before voiced consonants (mad vs mat), and in a primary stressed syllable (comPUter). For example, the sound schwa (/ə/), the most common vowel in the English language, is dependent on stress, a suprasegmental, i.e. the non-realization of word stress (Levis, 2018). You can read more about word stress and vowel reduction here. (hyperlink to Stress chapter).
Regional variations
Vowels are pronounced differently in various regions across North America. They may also differ depending on a speaker’s socio-economic status. While you may not dive into the details on this topic, it’s important to raise your students’ awareness that differences exist. Some well-known variations are listed below, but not all speakers in particular areas will sound the same.
|
Word |
GA |
Southern |
New York |
Chicago |
Toronto |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
cot |
[ɑ] |
[ɑ] |
[ɑ] |
[a] |
[ɔ] |
|
caught |
[ɑ] |
[ɔ] |
[ɔ] |
[ɑ] |
[ɔ] |
|
pen |
[ɛ] |
[ɪ] |
[ɛ] |
[ʌ] |
[ɛ] |
|
pin |
[ɪ] |
[ɪ] |
[ɪ] |
[ɪ] |
[ɪ] |
|
oil |
[ɔɪ] |
[oʊ] |
[ɔɪ] |
[ɔɪ] |
[ɔɪ] |
|
tide |
[aɪ] |
[a:] |
[aɪ] |
[aɪ] |
[aɪ] |
|
man |
[ɛə] |
[ɛə] |
[ɛə] |
[ɛə] |
[æ] |
3.2 Why are they important in English speech?
Vowels are a crucial part of the sound system in a language. Mispronouncing vowels, such as confusing ‘ship’ with ‘sheep’ or ‘bit’ with ‘beat,’ may lead to unintelligible speech or certain words being mistaken for another word. Therefore, we may say that vowels are important because:
- They are crucial for understanding and being understood;
- They have a direct impact on the quality of our communication;
- Speech can be hard to understand not only because of individual sound mispronunciations but also combinations of vowel mistakes in words, phrases, and sentences (Levis, 2019).
3.3 Are some vowels more important than others?
It’s worth noting that not all vowels are created equal. Research shows that certain vowels hold greater importance and occur more frequently than others and should be prioritized in teaching. This idea is rooted in the concept of “functional load.” Some vowels appear more frequently in words that are similar, such as minimal pairs [hover box description: Minimal pairs are two words that vary by only a single sound and are commonly used in pronunciation teaching], and that can cause problems in communication. Figure 3.4 below provides an overview of vowel contrasts with the highest functional load (adapted from Catford, 1987). Those in bold print are errors that are common for a variety of languages.
|
Functional load |
% |
|---|---|
|
[bit/bat] |
[100] |
|
[beet/bit] |
[95] |
|
[bought/boat] |
[88] |
|
[bit/but] |
[85] |
|
[cat/cot] |
[76] |
|
[cat/cut] |
[68] |
|
[bit/bet] |
[54] |
The teachers can decide what vowel contrasts they need to prioritize in their context. Additionally, the learner’s L1 background may influence the degree of difficulty they may encounter with certain vowels. For example, a learner from a Spanish L1 background may struggle to distinguish /iː/ and /ɪ/ because there is only one /i/ sound in their L1. Teachers should keep these factors in mind to facilitate more effective pronunciation instruction.
3.4 How to approach teaching vowels
It’s important to be aware that people can mispronounce vowels in various ways: substitute, delete, distort, or add them. This process may largely vary depending on the learner’s level of L2 knowledge, their aptitude, and their L1.
One common way to teach vowels is by using sounds that appear in minimal pairs. Minimal pairs are two words that vary by only a single sound and are commonly used in pronunciation teaching. When the learner compares the two words, for example, fill and feel , they have the opportunity to listen to the two contrasting sounds in the same or similar context. Vowel perception training has been found useful in the literature to help learners distinguish between challenging contrasting sounds. You can start by using humorous examples to spark learners’ interest, for example, using the video ProFUNciation Fails [link to this part].
To further enhance vowel instruction, consider incorporating visual aids such as tongue and lip diagrams and encourage extensive listening practice to raise learners’ awareness of vowel distinction. Other valuable approaches could be encouraging peer feedback, self-assessment, and computer-based training. Computer-based perceptual training seems to be particularly effective with learners. In the sections below, we provide some technology resources and a number of activities that can be used to teach vowels.
3.5 Technology Corner
Perception
- The Color Vowel Chart: This tool is an interactive vowel chart where learners can hear the pronunciation of vowels (Copyright information)
- English Accent Coach: This tool can be used for consonant and vowel perception training;
- YouGlish: The learner can type any word and hear how it is spoken by real people and in context;
- Tools for Clear Speech: This website provides articulations, descriptions, and examples of sounds.
Production
- Google Pronunciation: to find this tool, the learner needs to google the target word and type pronunciation, for example, “leave pronunciation.” In the lower right corner, they should be able to locate the “practice” button, an ASR-based function that gives feedback on pronunciation.
- Google Translate: to use Google Translate, or similar ASR-dictation tools, the learner can use the voice-to-speech function to dictate into the document. Based on the transcription, the learner can identify whether the ASR was able to understand, detect, and transcribe the words correctly.
3.6 Activities
Description and Analysis
/æ/ and /ɛ/
Put your tongue low and toward the front of your mouth. Keep your lips and mouth relaxed. Make your vocal cords vibrate while holding your tongue in this position.
To produce the /ɛ/ sound:
This vowel is a mid-front vowel. Place your tongue at a middle height in your mouth and move it toward the front. Keep the muscles of your lips and mouth relaxed. Generate vibrations in your vocal cords while keeping your mouth in this position.
Remember, the /æ/ sound is lower in your mouth than the /ɛ/ sound.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 3-1.
Directions: Listen to the lists of words for each sound.
/æ/ sound:
- cat
- mat
- bag
- hat
- fast
- black
- dance
- stamp
- plant
- sand
/ɛ/ sound:
- bed
- red
- pen
- bell
- met
- head
- dress
- desk
- shell
- step
Exercise 3-2. Same or different?
Directions: Listen to the words and guess whether they are the same or different.
Exercise 3-3. Word 1 or Word 2?
Directions: Listen to the words and select the one that the speaker said first.
Exercise 3-4. Which word is different: 1, 2, or 3?
Directions: Select the word that sounds different.
Controlled Production
Exercise 3-5.
Directions: Listen to each of the sentences. Select the word you hear.
Exercise 3-6. Practice pronouncing these words and get feedback!
Directions: Record yourself pronouncing these words.
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 3-7. Practice & Discuss
Directions: You have won a $ 1,000 shopping certificate which can be sent on any of the following items as long as your total does not exceed $1,000. Choose from the following items. What will you buy?
Description and Analysis
/iː/ and /ɪ/
To produce the /ɪ/ sound:
The /ɪ/ vowel is a high-front sound. Put your tongue high and toward the front in your mouth. Keep your lips relaxed and slightly open. Make your vocal cords vibrate while holding your mouth in this position.
To produce the /i/ sound:
The /i/ vowel is a high-front sound. Place your tongue high and toward the front in your mouth. Tense your lips and slightly stretch the corners of your mouth apart. Keep your lips only slightly open. Generate vibrations in your vocal cords while maintaining this mouth position.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 3-8.
Directions: Listen to the list of words for each sound.
- sneakers-snickers
- lick-leak
- list-least
- ream-rim
- feel-fill
- heat-hit
- each-itch
- rid-read
- pitches-peaches
- bead-bid
- ship-sheep
- meat-mitt
Exercise 3-9. Same or different?
Directions: Listen to the words and guess whether they are the same or different.
Exercise 3-10. Word 1 or Word 2?
Directions: Listen to the word and select the one that speaker said.
Exercise 3-11. Which word is different: 1, 2, or 3?
Directions: Select the word that sounds different.
Controlled Production
Exercise 3-12. Practice words with – /ɪ/ and get feedback!
Directions: Record yourself saying these words.
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 3-13. Practice & Discuss.
Chicago is located on the southern end of Lake Michigan and is known as the “Windy City”. It’s one of the biggest cities in America. The city itself has a population of about 3 million, but another 3 million people live in the suburbs around Chicago. The inner city has many famous buildings, including the Chicago Theatre and the Willis (formerly Sears) Tower, which is the tallest building in the world. The Field Museum of Natural History is also in Chicago. Because of its many points of interest, Chicago is a nice place to visit. However, I wouldn’t want to live there.
After you have read the text about Chicago, select the images that contain words that are mentioned in the text.
Now discuss the questions with your classmates. If you’re practicing alone, use the voice-to-text feature to get immediate feedback on your speech.
Description and Analysis
/ɑ/ – /ʌ/
The /ʌ/ vowel is a mid-central sound. This means your tongue is mostly relaxed and in the center of your mouth, not too far forward or back. Keep your tongue at a middle height in your mouth and let your lips be partially open. Vibrate your vocal cords and push air from your mouth.
To produce the /ɑ/ sound:
The /ɑ/ vowel is a low-back sound. Place your tongue low in your mouth and move it toward the back. Open your mouth wider than for /ʌ/ or /o/. Vibrate your vocal cords and push air from your mouth.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 3-14.
Directions: Listen to a list of words for each sound.
/ʌ/ sound:
- run
- jump
- sun
- bus
- fun
- mud
- luck
/ɑ/ sound:
- wrong
- hot
- want
- boss
- not
- stop
Exercise 3-15. Same or different?
Directions: Listen to the words and guess whether they are the same or different.
Exercise 3-16. Dictation. /ʌ/ or /ɑ/?
Directions:
Controlled Production
Exercise 3-17. Practice
Directions: Listen to the sentence. Record yourself saying the highlighted words to get feedback!
Exercise 3-18. Strip Story
Directions:
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 3-19. Discussion
Directions: You have a $1,000 gift certificate. What would you buy and why? Choose your top three answers and discuss with a partner.
3.7 References
Brown, A. (1988). Functional load and the teaching of pronunciation. TESOL quarterly, 22(4), 593-606. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587258
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., & Goodwin, J. M. (2010). Teaching pronunciation: A course book and reference guide. Cambridge University Press.
Flege, J. E. (1995). Second language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems. In W. Strange (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research, (pp. 233-277). York Press.
Levis, J. M. (2018). Intelligibility, oral communication, and the teaching of pronunciation. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108241564
Swan, M., & Smith, B. (2001). Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667121