Segmentals
4 Consonants
Agata Guskaroska
- To define consonants and their characteristics
- To explore innovative ways to teach consonant pronunciation to students
- To introduce teachers to minimal pairs and ways to use them in the classroom
- To provide exercises for most commonly mispronounced vowels
4.1 What are consonants?
Consonants are sounds that are produced with narrowing in the mouth, which causes some obstruction of air stream. They differ from each other based on place and manner of articulation and voicing. Figure 4.1 below illustrates this classification of the consonants in GA English.
| MANNER | VOICING | Bilabial | Labiodental | Interdental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glotal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | Voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ | |||
| Stop | Voiced | b | d | g | ||||
| Fricative | Voiceless | f | θ | s | ʃ | h | ||
| Fricative | Voiced | v | ð | z | ʒ | |||
| Affricate | Voiceless | tʃ | ||||||
| Affricate | Voiced | dʒ | ||||||
| Nasal | Voiced | m | n | ŋ | ||||
| Lateral (Liquid) |
Voiced | l | ||||||
| Rhotic (Liquid) |
Voiced | r (ɹ] | ||||||
| Glide | Voiced | w | j | (w) |
Place of articulation
Place of articulation refers to the position in the mouth where the airstream is obstructed. The various places of articulation are labeled in the mouth diagram below (Figure 4.2). There are seven classifications of consonants according to place of articulation:
- Bilabial (sounds made with the lips). These include sounds like /p/ (as in “pen”), /b/ (as in “bat” );
- Labiodental (sounds made with the lips and the teeth). These include sounds like /f/ (as in “fan” ), /v/ (as in “van” )
- Interdental (sounds made with the tongue between the teeth). These include sounds like /θ/ (as in “think” ), /ð/ (as in “this” );
- Alveolar (sounds made with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge). These include sounds like /t/ (as in “top” ), /d/ (as in “dog” );
- Palatal (sounds made with the blade of the tongue approaching the hard palate). These include sounds like /ʃ/ (as in “shoe” ), /ʒ/ (as in “measure” );
- Velar (sounds made with the back part of the tongue rising to touch the velum). These include sounds like /k/ (as in “cat” ), /g/ (as in “go” );
- Glottal (sounds produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis). These include sounds like /h/ (as in “hat” )
Manner of articulation
Manner of articulation means how we make sounds by blocking the air in different ways. There are several different ways that the air can be obstructed:
- Stops (sounds where you fully block the air). These include sounds like /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/.
- Fricatives (sounds with a partial blockage or friction of air). These include sounds like /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, and /ʒ/.
- Affricates (a mix of stops and fricatives). This category includes sounds like /ʧ/ (as in “ch” in “chat” ) and /ʤ/ (as in “j” in “jump” ).
- Nasals (sounds produced through the nose): These include sounds like /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/.
- Liquids (in the pronunciation of these sounds, the air passes in a somewhat fluid manner). These include sounds like /l/ and /r/.
- Glides: (also known as semi-vowels, involve a continuous and fluid movement of the tongue and lips). These include sounds like /w/ and /j/.
Voicing
Finally, voicing refers to the way the vocal cords vibrate when a sound is pronounced. For example, the sounds /s/ and /z/ have the same place and manner of articulation, but the difference is only in the voicing. This can be noticed by putting your fingers at the Adam’s Apple while pronouncing the sounds /s/ and /z/. When pronouncing the voiced sound /z/, you should be able to feel the vibration of the vocal cords. As the figure illustrates, all the stops, fricatives, and affricates have voiced and voiceless pairs. On the other hand, all the nasals, liquids, glides, and vowels are voiced. The voicing of consonants is important because some learners often confuse some of the voiced/voiceless pairs, for example, /p/-/b/ or /s/-/z/.
4.2 Why are they important in English speech?
Consonants are an important part of the sound system in a language. Mispronouncing consonants, such as confusing ‘light’’ with ‘right’ or ‘pig’ with ‘big’, may lead to speech that is difficult to understand or certain words being mistaken for another word. One of the most noticeable things about pronunciation is the mispronunciation of consonants. Therefore, we may say that consonants are important because:
- Proper pronunciation of consonants ensures that words are understood correctly, leading to effective communication;
- Consonants often create minimal pairs, where a change in a single consonant can alter the meaning of a word. Mastering consonant sounds prevents confusion and unintelligible speech;
- Consonants play a role in forming grammatical structures, and their correct pronunciation is crucial for accurate grammatical construction. For example, some errors may include dropping the -s or -ed inflection for forming verb tenses;
- Speech can be hard to understand because of individual sound mispronunciations and combinations of consonant or consonant clusters mistakes in words, phrases, and sentences.
4.3 Are some consonants more important than others?
Similar to the vowels, not all consonants are created equal. Research shows that certain consonants hold greater importance, occur more frequently than others, and should be prioritized in teaching. As a reminder, this idea is rooted in the concept of “functional load.” Some consonants appear more frequently in words that are similar, such as minimal pairs [hover description: Minimal pairs are two words that vary by only a single sound and are commonly used in pronunciation teaching], which can cause communication problems. The table below provides an overview of specific consonant contrasts with the highest functional load ranked from highest to lowest (adapted from Levis, 2019). For a full table, see Levis (2019).
|
Consonants |
Examples |
Consonants |
Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
|
[p-b] |
pat-bat |
[b-v] |
rebel-revel |
|
[p-f] |
pat-fat |
[f-v] |
file-vile |
|
[n-l] |
night-light |
[ð-z] |
clothing-closing |
|
[l-r] |
fall-fore |
[s-/ʃ/] |
sea-she |
|
[t-d] |
tip-dip |
[n-ŋ] |
sin-sing |
|
[w-v] |
wet-vet |
|
|
|
[s-z] |
singer-zinger |
|
|
Same as the consonants, the teachers can decide what consonant contrasts they need to prioritize in their context. The learner’s L1 background may play a crucial role in the pronunciation issues the learners are facing. For example, a learner from a Korean L1 background may struggle to distinguish /l/ and /r because the Korean language does not have a distinct /l/ and /r/ contrast as separate phonemes. Instead, Korean includes a sound that is somewhat in between the English /l/ and /r/. Teachers should consider these factors to facilitate more effective pronunciation instruction. If they have learners from mixed backgrounds in an ESL setting, the teachers can include the most commonly mispronounced sounds in general to address most of the learners’ issues.
4.4 How to approach teaching consonants?
Teaching consonants requires understanding potential mispronunciations, which may involve substitutions, deletions, distortions, or additions. The extent of these errors can be influenced by factors such as the learner’s level, aptitude, and L1.
A widely effective strategy in consonant instruction is using minimal pairs, similar to the approach used in teaching vowels. Minimal pairs consist of two words that differ by a single sound and are frequently included in pronunciation teaching. For instance, comparing words like “pat” and “bat” allows learners to distinguish subtle differences in consonant sounds within a similar context. Using humorous examples, such as YouTube videos of mispronunciation, can engage learners, help them understand the potential consequences of consonant mispronunciations, and make the process enjoyable.
To further support consonant instruction, incorporating visual aids that include lip shape and tongue position can provide learners with a tangible reference for correct articulation. Additionally, encouraging extensive perception and listening practice is crucial for raising awareness of consonant distinctions. The exercises in this chapter provide several opportunities for learners to practice their perception with immediate feedback. In addition, giving and receiving feedback on sound production is very important for awareness raising. Besides the Automated Speech Recognition (ASR) feedback provided with the exercises within this book, feedback from instructors and peers, as well as recording their own pronunciation for self-assessment can be effective. With the advanced development of technology, computer-based training has shown effectiveness, making it a favorable method for consonant instruction.
In the following sections, we introduce technology resources and a variety of activities designed to facilitate the teaching of consonants, promoting a comprehensive and engaging learning experience.
4.5 Technology Corner
Perception
- The Accent Coach: This tool can be used for consonant and vowel perception training;
- YouGlish: The learner can type any word and hear how it is spoken by real people and in context;
- Tools for Clear Speech: this website provides articulations description and examples of sounds.
Production
- Google Pronunciation: to find this tool, the learner needs to google the target word and type pronunciation, for example, “leave pronunciation.” In the lower right corner, they should be able to locate the “practice” button, an ASR-based function that gives feedback on pronunciation.
- Google Translate: to use Google Translate, or similar ASR-dictation tools, the learner can use the voice-to-speech function to dictate into the document. Based on the transcription, the learner can identify whether the ASR was able to understand, detect, and transcribe the words correctly.
4.6 Activities – Communicative Framework
/p/, /b/, /v/
Description and Analysis
To say the /p/ sound:
To make the /p/ sound, close your lips and push air out through your mouth. Don’t touch your teeth to your lips. Hold it back briefly, then let it go with a little puff of air. Don’t vibrate your vocal cords when you make this sound.
To say the /b/ sound:
To make the /b/ sound, close your lips and press them together. Let your vocal cords vibrate, and push air out of your mouth against your closed lips. Release the air all at once while keeping your vocal cords vibrating.
*Remember: The only difference between /p/ and /b/ is the vibration of the vocal cords.
To say the /v/ sound:
For the /v/ sound, touch the bottom edges of your upper teeth to the inside of your lower lip. Let your vocal cords vibrate, and push air out of your mouth, making it pass between your teeth and lower lip. You should feel some resistance (friction).
*Remember: The difference between /b/ and /v/ is the position of the lips and the way the air flows in the pronunciation of these sounds.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 4-1. Listening
Directions: Listen to the lists of words for each sound.
/p/ – /b/
- big pig
- buy pie
- by pie
- bear pair
- bet pet
/b/ – /v/
- ban van
- bat vat
- beer veer
- boat vote
- bowl vole
Exercise 4-2. Same or different?
Directions: Listen to the words and guess whether they are the same or different.
/p/ – /b/
Exercise 4-3. Word 1/ or Word 2?
Directions: Listen to the word and guess which one the speaker said.
Exercise 4-4. Which word is different: 1, 2, or 3?
Directions: Select the word that sounds different
Controlled Production
Exercise 4-5. Practice pronouncing these words and get feedback!
Directions: Listen to each of the phrases. Record yourself saying these words and get feedback.
Exercise 4-6. Sentence Matching
Directions: Drag and drop the sentences to find the matching sentence.
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 4-7. Create a story
Directions:
Exercise 4-8. Story practice
Directions: Read the story and record your answer. Then listen to your speech and reflect on your pronunciation of the words that contain the sounds /b/, /v/ and /p/.
David Evans is a student at Harvard University. Harvard is a very well-known university, but because it’s a private university it’s very expensive. David will have a vacation in November. He plans to travel to Virginia to visit a friend from Harvard. His friend lives in the Shenandoah Valley, and there are some very beautiful views there. Davis and his friend will drive back to Harvard together when the vacation is over.
/l/, /r/, /n/
Description and Analysis
To say the /l/ sound:
Put the tip of your tongue on the roof of your mouth, just behind your teeth. Make your vocal cords vibrate and let the air move around the sides of your tongue. If the /l/ is at the end of a word, lift the back of your tongue a bit without touching the top of your mouth.
To say the /r/ sound:
When making the /r/ sound, make sure the tip of your tongue doesn’t touch the roof of your mouth. If it does touch, it might sound like an /l/ instead. Pull your tongue back to the center of your mouth and point the tip up a bit. Let your vocal cords vibrate, and let the air flow around and over your tongue.
To say the /n/ sound:
Position the front part of your tongue on the roof of your mouth, just behind your teeth. Ensure that the tip and sides of your tongue touch the roof of your mouth. Then, activate your vocal cords to create vibration. Make sure that no air escapes through your mouth; instead, it should all exit through your nose. You can confirm this by pinching your nose shut while making the sound – it should sound high-pitched and nasal.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 4-9. Listening
Directions: Listen to the list of words for each sound.
/l/ – /r/
- late – rate
- lime – rhyme
- liver – river
- alive – arrive
- glue – grew
- play – pray
- glass – grass
- blight – bright
/l/ – /n/
- lap – nap
- light – night
- lip – nip
- lick – nick
- lace – nace
- lure – nure
- lock – knock
- loom – noon
- late – nate
Exercise 4-10. Same or different?
Directions: Listen to the words and guess whether they are the same or different.
Exercise 4-11. Word 1 or Word 2?
Directions: Listen to the word and select the one that has the /r/ sound.
Exercise 4-12. Which word is different: 1, 2, or 3?
Directions: Select the word that sounds different.
Controlled Production
Exercise 4-13. Practice pronouncing these phrases!
Directions: Listen to each of the phrases. Record yourself saying these words and get feedback.
Exercise 4-14. Practice pronouncing these words and phrases!
Directions: Listen to each of the phrases. Record yourself saying these words and get feedback.
Exercise 4-15. Practice pronouncing the words below.
Directions: Listen to each of the phrases. Record yourself saying these word and get feedback.
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 4-16. Flashcards
Directions: Look at the pictures and tell which animal you see. Listen to the answer and turn the dialog card and. Which animal is your favorite one? Discuss with a partner.
/θ/ – /s/
Description and Analysis
To produce the /θ/ sound:
Put the tip of your tongue between your top and bottom teeth. Blow air out gently between your tongue and teeth. You should feel some resistance. Remember not to use your vocal cords for this sound.
To produce the /s/ sound:
Put your tongue close to the roof of your mouth, just behind your top teeth. Don’t touch your teeth. Blow air out while keeping your tongue in that position. You might feel some resistance. Don’t vibrate your vocal cords when making this sound.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 4-16. Same or different?
Directions: Listen to the word and guess whether they are the same or different.
Exercise 4-17. Word 1/ or Word 2?
Directions: Listen to the words and guess which one the speaker said.
Exercise 4-18. Which word is different, 1, 2, or 3?
Directions: Select the word that sounds different.
Controlled Production
Exercise 4-19.Practice pronouncing these words and phrases.
Directions: Record yourself saying these words and get feedback.
Exercise 4-20. Practice pronouncing the words below.
Directions: Record yourself saying these words and get feedback
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 4-21. Flashcards
Directions: Look at the pictures and tell which item you see. Turn the dialog card and listen to the answer. Which one is your favorite item? Why? Discuss with a partner.
/s/- /z/
Description and Analysis
To produce the /z/ sound:
Put the front part of your tongue (just behind the tip) near the roof of your mouth, behind your teeth. Leave a small gap between your tongue and the roof of your mouth. Make your vocal cords vibrate (like a buzzing sound). Push air out gently between your tongue and the roof of your mouth. You should feel some resistance.
*Remember, the only difference between /s/ and /z/ is the vibration of the vocal cords.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 4-21. Same or different?
Directions: Listen to the words and guess whether they are the same or different.
Exercise 4-22. Word 1 or Word 2?
Directions: Listen to the words and select the one the speaker said.
Exercise 4-23. Which word is different: 1, 2, or 3?
Controlled Production
Exercise 4-24. Practice pronouncing these words and phrases
Directions: Listen to each of the phrases. Pronounce the words and get feedback.
Exercise 4-25. Practice pronouncing the words below.
Directions: Listen to each of the phrases. Pronounce the words and get feedback.
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 4-26. Practice with a partner.
Directions: You have a $1,000 gift certificate. What would you buy and why? Choose your top three answers and discuss with a partner.
/ð/ – /z/
Description and Analysis
To produce the /ð/ sound:
Put the tip of your tongue between your top and bottom teeth. Blow air out gently between your tongue and teeth. You should feel some resistance. Vibrate your vocal cords.
Listening Discrimination
Exercise 4-27. Same or different?
Listen to the words and guess whether they are the same or different.
Exercise 4-28. Word 1 or Word 2?
Directions: Listen to the word and select the one that the speaker said.
Exercise 4-29. Which word is different: 1, 2, or 3?
Directions: Select the word that sounds different.
Controlled Production
Exercise 4-30. Practice pronouncing these words and phrases!
Directions: Listen to each of the phrases. Record yourself saying the words to get feedback.
Exercise 4-31. Practice pronouncing the words below.
Directions: Record yourself pronouncing these words.
Guided & Communicative Production
Exercise 4-32. Role Play
Directions:
You are an undergraduate student. You are very interested in the following three courses, but they have time conflict. You were thinking over and over what you should choose last night, but you have not decided yet. You have to decide by Thursday, so you decided to see your academic advisor, Dr. Smith, to ask her advice.
Anthropology 103 (Introduction to cultural anthropology)
Theme of the course: English variety in North America
Tuesday, Thursday 3:00-4:30
Mathematics 133 (New Theory and method of mathematics)
Tuesday, Thursday 3:00-4:30
Health Studies 113 (Introduction to public health)
Tuesday Thursday 2:30-4:00
4.7 References
Brown, A. (1988). Functional load and the teaching of pronunciation. TESOL quarterly, 22(4), 593-606. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587258
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., & Goodwin, J. M. (2010). Teaching pronunciation: A course book and reference guide. Cambridge University Press.
Levis, J. M. (2018). Intelligibility, oral communication, and the teaching of pronunciation. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108241564
Swan, M., & Smith, B. (2001). Learner English: A teacher’s guide to interference and other problems (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667121